राज्यसेवा पूर्व परीक्षा २०१५ - Paper 2

Questions number 21 to 26 :
Aerosols are dispersions of liquids in gases (like fog and many sprays) and of solids in gases (such as smoke) : the particles are often large enough to be seen with a microscope. Emulsions are dispersions of liquids in liquids (such as milk).
The preparation of aerosols can be as simple as sneezing (which produces an aerosol). Laboratory and commerical methods make use of several techniques.
Chemical precipitation sometimes results in a colloid. A precipitate (e.g. silver iodide) already formed may be dispersed by the addition of a peptizing agent (e.g. potassium iodide). Clays may be peptized by alkalis, the OH ion being the active agent.
Emulsions are normally prepared by shaking the two components together, although some kind of emulsifying agent has to be used in order to stabilize the product. This emulsifier may be a soap (a long chain fatty acid), a surfactant (Section 23.111, or a lyophilic sol that forms a protective film around the dispersed phase. In milk, which is an emulsion of fats in water, the emulsifying agent is casein, a protein containing phosphate groups. That casein is not completely successful in stabilizing milk is apparent from the formation of cream on the surface : the dispersed particles coalesce into oily droplets which float to the surface.
Aerosols are formed when a spray of liquid is torn apart by a jet of gas. The dispersal is aided if a charge is applied to the liquid, for then the electrostatic repulsions blast the jet apart into droplets. This procedure may also be used to produce emulsions, for the charged liquid phase may be squirted into another liquid.
Colloids are often purified by dialysis. As in the discussion of Donnan effect membrane (e.g. cellulose) is selected which is permeable to solvent and ions, but not to the colloidal particles. Dialysis is very slow, and is normally accelerated by applying an electric field and making use of the charge carried by many colloids; the technique is then called electrodialysis.

Question number 26 to 30:
The beginnings of a science
     The science of international politics is in its infancy. Down to 1914, the conduct of international relations was the concern of persons professionally engaged in it. In democratic countries, foreign policy was traditionally regarded as outside the scope of party politics; and the representative organs did not feel themselves competent to exercise anyone close control over the mysterious operations of foreign offices. In Great Britain, public opinion was readily aroused if war occurred in any region traditionally regarded as a sphere of British interest, or if the British navy momentarily ceased to possess that margin of superiority over potential rivals which was then deemed essential. In continental Europe, conscription and the chronic fear of foreign invasion had created a more general and continuous popular awareness of international problems. But this awareness found expression mainly in the labour movement, which from time to time passed somewhat academic resolutions against war. The Constitution of the United States of America contained the unique provision that treaties were concluded by the President "by and with the advice and consent of the Senate". But the foreign relations of the United States seemed too parochial to lend any wider significance to this exception. The more picturesque aspects of diplomacy had a certain news value. But nowhere, whether in universities or in wider intellectual circles, was there organized study of current international affairs. War was still regarded mainly as the business of soldiers; and the corollary of this was that international politics, was the business of diplomats. There was no general desire to take the conduct of international affairs out of the hands of the professionals or even to pay serious and systematic attention to what they were doing.

Questions number 31 to 32 :
     A biofuel is a fuel that contains energy from geologically recent carbon fixation, such as plants. These fuels are produced from living organisms. Examples of this carbon fixation occur in plants and microalgae. These fuels are made by a biomass conversion (biomass refers to recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient energy containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in popularity because of rising oil prices and the need for energy security. Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as com, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the lignin portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons of diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.

 प्रश्न क्रमांक 33 ते 37:
     समाजातील भूमिका - भूमिकांत, समूहा - समूहांत वा सामाजिक संस्थांमध्ये सापेक्षतः स्थिर स्वरूपाचे परस्परसंबंध असतात. या स्थिर स्वरूपाच्या घटकांतील परस्परसंबंधांनी संरचना बनते. आता, या संबंधांना स्थिरत्व (stability) कशामुळे येते ? 'सामाजिक नियमनांमुळे' (social norms) असेच याचे उत्तर द्यावे लागेल. सामाजिक नियमने हा समाज-संरचनेचा एक महत्त्वाचा घटक ठरतो तो यासाठीच. ।
     सामाजिक नियमने म्हणजे समाजातील विविध भूमिका वठविणा-या व्यक्तींनी परस्परांशी कसे वागावे याविषयीचे नियम होत. म्हणजेच ते वर्तनविषयक नियम असतात. समाजातील सामाजिक स्थाने व्यक्ती भूषवितात व स्थानाला दर्जा व भूमिका हे दोन पैलू असतात. ह्या सामाजिक स्थानांचा आशय (content) सामाजिक नियमने हाच असतो. उदा. पित्याची भूमिका म्हणजे पित्याने आपल्या मुलाशी कसे वागावे याविषयीच्या अपेक्षा होत. कोणत्याही समूहातील विविध भूमिका परस्परसंबंधित असतात व सामाजिक नियमने म्हणजे या परस्परसंबंधांचे नियम असतात, पति-पत्नी, बहीण-भाऊ, वडील-मुलगा, यांनी परस्परांशी कसे वागावे याबद्दल सामाजिक नियमने ही मार्गदर्शक तत्त्वे किंवा वर्तनविषयक आदर्श असतात.
     सर्वच मानवी समाजात सामाजिक नियमने असतात आणि त्यांना संपूर्ण समाजाचा पाठिंबा असतो. वर्तन दिसते तसे हे वर्तनविषयक नियम दिसत नाहीत, म्हणजेच नियमने अमूर्त असतात. व्यक्तीच्या वर्तनावर मर्यादा घालणारा आणि मनात बाळगलेला, अमूर्त आदर्श म्हणजे नियमन होय अशी नियमनाची व्याख्या जॉन्सन यांनी केली आहे. नियमने वर्तनाचे नियंत्रण करतात. नियमने निश्चयात्मक व निषेधात्मक अशा दोन्ही स्वरूपाची असतात. व्यक्तीने कसे वागावे हे सांगणारी नियमने म्हणजे निश्चयात्मक नियमने, उदा. विद्याथ्र्यांनी शिक्षकांच्या आज्ञा पाळाव्यात. तर निषेधात्मक नियमने व्यक्तीचे वर्तन कसे नसावे, तिने कसे वागू नये हे सांगतात. उदा. चोरी करू नये, शिक्षकांशी उद्धटपणे वागू नये इ. सामाजिक नियमने स्थळ, काल, परिस्थिती आणि सामाजिक स्थानसापेक्ष असतात. परिस्थितीनुरूप, भूमिकेनुरूप, तसेच कालावघातकाळाप्रमाणे ती बदलतात. पण नियमने अचानकपणे बदलत नाहीत, ती सापेक्षतः स्थिर असतात. सर्व समाजातील नियमने एकसारखीच असत नाहीत. प्रत्येक समाजातील नियमनांचे स्वरूप भिन्न भिन्न असते. समाजीकरण प्रक्रियेत व्यक्तीकडून नियमनांचे आंतरीकरण होते. नियमनांचे विविध प्रकार आहेत. लोकरीति (Folkways), लोकनीति (Mores) व कायदे (Laws) या स्थूल गटात नियमनांचे वर्गीकरण समाजशास्त्रज्ञ करतात. समाजातील व्यक्ती व समूहांच्या वर्तनाचे नियमन करून समाजात व्यवस्था निर्माण करणे व समाजाला स्थैर्य प्राप्त करून देणे ही महत्त्वाची भूमिका सामाजिक नियमने पार पाडतात.

Questions number 38 to 43;
     Hyderabad sits nestled amongst one of the oldest rock systems of the world. These granite rocks are 2500 million years old. Rain, sun and wind have for aeons, through their collective and continuous physical and chemical actions, worked them into weird shapes. Some appear perched upon each other so precariously that you feel some giant-children playing at house making must have kept them there. From times immemorial they have stayed like that without tumbling down. They will remain like that long after we are gone.
     Golconda Fort was once a mere hillock, a hump of a giant camel, a mass of scattered misshapen granite. It was sheer wilderness. There cow and goatherds used to graze cattle and sheep belonging to the nearby villages. It was so popular with graziers that it took the name of 'hillock of the graziers' - Golla Konda in Telugu, the local language. Golla Konda later on became 'Golconda'. Hyderabad is the daughter of Golconda Fort which stands in ruins now, eight kilometres away from the centre of the city. The fort was built about a thousand years ago, during the Kakatiya rule (AD 1000 - 1321) which had its capital at Warangal - a city about 150 kilometres to the north of Hyderabad.
     Rudramba Devi, queen of the Kakatiya dynasty, ruled for 34 years froin AD 1262 to 1296. She withstood the combined attacks of the Pandyas, the Yadavas and the Hoysalas with the help of her grandson, Prataparudradeva who succeeded her (AD 1296 - 1323).
      He too was an illustrious ruler but was subjected to repeated attacks by the Sultans of Delhi: there were five during the two decades after AD 1303. Finally, he was defeated by Ulugh Khan, imprisoned and taken prisoner to Delhi. On the way he committed suicide. Ulugh Khan later became the Sultan of Hindustan, and is known as Mohammad Tughlaq. Since his empire had extended to the south, Delhi was no longer the centre of political gravity. He, therefore, ordered that the capital of India be shifted from Delhi to Daulatabad. For two decades this city remained the capital of India.